Why did the United States fail to sign the Treaty of Versailles Research Paper

Why did the United States fail to sign the Treaty of Versailles - Research Paper Example In fact, he worked a lot for that to happen but the end result did not turn out as he had wished. The United States did not sign the treaty because Wilson did not have the vote of all the Senate members. Wilson required constitutionally mandated two-thirds vote for ratification which he did not get. Henry Cabot Lodge and Alfred Beveridge were highly against the treaty. Lodge was a Republican and the Senate majority leader and Chairman of the Foreign Relations Committee, thus holding a lot of power and responsibility. The failure of the United States to ratify the Treaty of Versailles and, eventually, join the League of Nations is a story of conflict. However, no matter where the focus is on – personalities, political parties and branches of government, or ideas and institutions, Wilson certainly did lie at the crux. It was his overweening confidence in the view that he held of the world that he dealt with which formed the basis of the defeat of the very tool that he had devise d in order to secure the world of future wars. Clemenceau once said bitterly: â€Å"Talk with Wilson! How can I talk to a fellow who thinks himself the first man in two thousand years to know anything about peace on earth?† and â€Å"I get on with you. You are practical.... Wilson was a visionary reared with a strong moral background. While others wanted to punish Germany, Wilson wished to get rid of the old system and come up with a new world order which would not treat Germany like a defeated enemy; instead he wanted to her to be like others, a partner of the new system he had envisioned. On the other hand, Clemenceau did not wish to end the old system but rather to make it stronger to build peace, and this meant that the conquerors would divide the spoils to come up with a reimbursement as satisfactory as possible to their respective nation’s requirements. History has paid substantial attention on the personal enmity that existed between Wilson and Lodge, and, from the consequences that we have seen it is clear that there was, in fact, a lot of political animosity between them4. It should also be considered, however, that they had opposite views regarding the issues of the day and thus their political behavior showed varied opinions. From the way Lodge was repudiating the President it seemed that it was his behavior rather than genuine ideological opposition. Instead of coming up with actual and meaningful debate that would list the reasons why the treaty should not be signed, Lodge kept delaying action by reading – word-for-word – the language of the Treaty5 6. Therefore, what it resulted in was just endless criticism that took about six weeks of public hearing. For the Senate Foreign Relation Committee he chose those senators whom he thought would go against the treaty. After the committee had reported the Treaty to the full Senate they did so after burdening it with corrections which Lodge had said were necessary to adopt and

Management acccounting Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Management acccounting - Assignment Example The intention of any costing system is not to replace an accounting system; but instead, to work within the broad frameworks of the accounting systems by extracting specific data for ease and speed in analysis (Barnett 2007). Costing systems exists in many forms two of which are the Conventional Absorption Costing and the Activity Based Costing (ABC). The conventional Absorption costing is a costing technique where all the costs associated with the production of the good or the services are considered; it is also called full costing (MeÃÅ'vellec 2009). It is used with the intent of giving the full picture of a company’s financial situation. Activity Based Costing on the other hand involves cost allocation based on cost drivers and they are known to provide companies with the most accurate costs for the products they produce despite the fact that they are time consuming to prepare. For ABC costing, direct materials, direct labor and manufacturing overhead will each have a cost driver; this will aid the application of the costs to the goods and services (Gosselin 2005). A comparison of the Conventional Absorption costing which is the traditional method applied and the Activity Based Costing, which is the modern approach, indicates that in most of the products, the ABC profits are higher than the Traditional cost profits. While the Traditional Method gives a total profit of 386,000, the ABC profits are 389,010; ABC’s profits are higher by 3,010. This difference may first be attributed to the approach and assumptions that are applied by either method to arrive at the profits. The traditional systems are known to apply the single volume-based cost driver approach, which has the tendency of distorting the costs of the products (MeÃÅ'vellec 2009). It does this by assigning the overhead costs to the respective products based on how they utilize direct labor making the systems report inaccurate product costs (Barnett

Strategic Supply Chain Management Business Essay

Strategic Supply Chain Management Business Essay Abstract In early stages supply chains were seen as just the supply process from a companys immediate supplier through to the immediate customer. They had their own goals, targets, deadlines, margins, and policies and also all these were depend on them based on how to cater the market demand. It is easy to perform especially in a monopoly market with very few outlets which is spread in a limited area. But when the business is growing they have to take solid decisions about expansion policies as well as the integration of supply chain operations to survive in the market and to gain the competitive advantage with the rapidly changing competitive climate. The manufacturing industry faces great challenges equally as any other industry, which is a result of economic crisis, especially when it comes to the diversified, large-scale companies with huge expansions and a customer base, as Singer Sri Lanka PLC. In particular to perform in the current competitive environment its not only the existing methods are important, but the latest logistics and supply chain management practices are matters a lot as well. Time has changed and out thinking about the way we manage our improvement activities also has to change. Good is not good enough Only our very best will attract the customers in todays competitive environment. Producing an excellent product is not cut the mustard today. Over the years Singer (Sri Lanka) structure has strengthen immensely to incorporate with the strategies formulated to face the changes in the environment. A critical study was carried out to understand the major competitive priorities in current supply chain of Singer Sri Lanka PLC; the supply chain management principles, strategies and techniques that are used in achieving these competitive priorities; other possible tools which could be used for improving the present performance of the organization and how the company can go beyond the excellence by using these practices as well. (Abstract is not included in the word count) 1.0 Scope of the Assignment To investigate Singer Sri Lanka PLCs supply chain with a view to, Understanding the supply chain systems and operations and to assess its impact on the chain. Identify the current supply chain strategies and the influence from various market conditions. Make recommendations in order to improve the current supply chain in the company and over come the identified critical issues and challenges by applying strategic supply chain management principles. Company Overview Singer Sri Lanka Started its operation in 1872 in Sri Lanka and is a Company that has grown over the years into a benchmark entity in Sri Lanka in terms of popularity, modernity and reach. Singer today is synonymous with quality, wide reach, and wide product range across diverse lines and wide appeal to consumers across the entire spectrum of buying power. Source -Singer (Sri Lanka) PLC Annual report Singer Sri Lanka PLC is a diversified, large-scale company, which was established and started its operations with few shops and now Singer has nearly 550 retail outlets spread all over the country with a group of more than thousand permanent employees. Furthermore Singer has widely spreaded distribution channels, such as Singer Plus, companys largest distribution channel, Singer Mega ,which optimises true modern trade retailing, promising a shopping experience on par with the best in the world, Singer Homes, the furniture store contributed to offer high quality and stylish furniture, Sisil World, promotes mainly Sisil brand products and it is the second slot in the distribution hierarchy, Singer Wholesale, Satellite shops and Duty Free etc are the other channels of distribution. Singers product portfolio is highly diversified and consists of products across a range of household, industrial and financial categories. Singer product portfolio: (Source: Singer (Sri Lanka) PLC Annual report 2009) Organization Structure Pyramid Singer Organization structure consists of three main management levels which include Junior, Middle and Senior. Senior and middle levels has two sub layers as illustrated below. A Foreign Component Suppliers B Local Component Suppliers Prodimix International Germany Arpico Haffle Fittings Italy Regional Sharpeners Dolken Company Germany St. Anthonys Company Hevea Company Malaysia Laminex Company Australia C Other Local Suppliers D Foreign Suppliers Soft Logic National/ Panasonic Epsi Computers Sony Craft Suppliers Samsung Nilkamal Hitachi TCL Whirlpool Wedge Unix E Retail Outlets F Corporate Customers Singer Mega Dilmah Singer Homes Nestle Singer plus John Keels Holdings Sisil World Media Services (Pvt) Ltd. The Supply Chain Competition Supply Chain is a network of connected and interdependent organizations mutually and co-operatively working together to control, manage and improve the flow of materials and information from suppliers to end users (Source: Christopher 2005, p.6) It is clear that current world companies cannot act individually and survive or gain a competitive advantage in the market for a long run. Therefore supply chain integration is a powerful concept for survival and growth in todays business environment. A product or a service should have key attributes to be competitive in the market place, which are known as the competitive priorities. The competitive priorities may change with the market segment. For example, when consider the Singer customers in a rural area may be interested primarily in the cost of product while the customers in urban areas are interested in quality of the same product. 3.1 Identifying the Competitive Priorities Cost Advantage: This is a strategy where the company seeks efficient facilities and uses tight cost controls to produce products more efficiently and effectively than competitors. Singer Sri Lanka had only around 10 brands in early 2000 and mainly concentrated on market penetration by providing affordable products to the mass market. In order to bring down the price, the company has moved to strategic sourcing of its major brands through an intermediary which purchases for the entire south Asian region which affects economies of scale. Eg: i. Discontinued the TV plant at Singer Industries Ltd., Ratmalana in 2001 and started sourcing form China. ii. Started the factory in Piliyandala for furniture water pumps to reduce imports as well as duties and offered innovative products at a competitive prices. At the same time manufacturing plants should plan their systems in such a way that all resources such as material, labour and machines are efficiently used to bring down the cost significantly. Also company should make sure to keep sufficient margin to cover all other overheads before going to reduce the selling price to get more volumes. This can be illustrated as follows; Value Advantage: Customers dont buy products, they buy benefits Adding value through differentiation is a powerful concept of achieving a defensible advantage in the market. Singer has moved to a differentiation and multi brand strategy to enter into a new era of retailing. In all categories, different brands positioned to appeal different customer segments. Singer trade name has changed to SINGER plus from SINGER on 1st of January 2007 and the slogan to MORE BRAND MORE CHOICE. It enables to increase the appeal to customers and the message of choice available in the stores and adds differential plus over competitive offerings. Singer adds value through service by providing unmatched service to their customers by giving not just a product but with a full package which includes super shopping environment, friendly customer care staff, product demonstration, discount schemes, easy payment schemes, free delivery to the door step, free installation, customer training, free services for selected items like A/Cs, extended warranty scheme, excellent after sales service, etc. When considering the product designs, certain designs may increase inventory holding or transportation costs with long manufacturing lead time. In Singer basically in furniture factories this issue can be seen. This will be a huge impact on the whole production of Singer factories if not properly address the problem. Multi Channel Strategy (Source: Singer (Sri Lanka) PLC Annual report 2007) Delivery Lead Time : Consumers in all markets, industrial or consumer are increasingly time sensitive and this is reflected in their purchasing behavior. This should be visible from the time of manufacturing to the delivery of the item. In all the Singer factories they use Computer Numerical Control (CNC Programmable machines) to make sure speedy, efficient and reliable manufacturing process. As a policy they also maintain average three months finished goods inventory in all the stock keeping units (SKUs) in general and 1.5 to 2 months finished goods inventory for identified fast moving items in the sub warehouse. Singer also has the island wide distribution network with more than 500 shops and goods are transporting everyday to all the locations from the central warehouse. Shops are also permit to keep sufficient inventory in their stores. But here the main issue is that the uncertainty of holding more inventories. Though they have reduced their lead-time, with the volatility of the markets some times they have resulted in excess inventory situations, where sometimes the loss can be very high. This is mainly for the items such as televisions, refrigerators and white goods (washing machines, home theatre systems) etc. since these can be out dated with the new technology enhancements. This should be addressed for an immediate solution, because it can have a huge impact on the whole supply chain in the long run. Quality: Quality should be there in every aspect including design quality, process quality, product quality, service quality, etc. While maintaining ISO 9001:2000 standards Singer Sri Lanka factories make sure that every item produced up to the required or expected level in terms of both quality of conformance and quality of design. In overall companys point of view it is also a crucial factor to maintain the balance approach between the price and quality of all the products. So to have a full range of products in each category company has decided to go with multi brand strategy, where the company doesnt want to compromise quality and damage the brand image due to get the price advantage. Analysis of key areas in Singer Supply Chain Analysis of the above competitive priorities has given a clear insight about the issues that can be impacted on the current supply chain and also here I would like to draw the attention on major key areas which should be considered to have an effective and efficient integrated network for the business organization. Areas to be reviewed; Supply chain competitive strategy Supply chain agility, flexibility and responsiveness How well the supply chain is synchronized 4.1 Supply Chain Competitive Strategy Competitive context of business continues to change basically because of four major reasons; i. The new rules of competition ii. Globalization of industry iii. Downward pressure on price iv. Customers take power to demand on goods/ services Analysis of Current Situation Currently Singer Sri Lanka has an internally integrated system which provides mainly an end to end planning framework and they highly depend on the hierarchy. So there is a high possibility of delaying the decisions due to lack of confidence and authority levels. Also the focus on reducing obsolescence properly is also a major issue. Possible Strategic Recommendations Singer Sri Lanka has to move ahead with external integration with their international suppliers this will lead to manage better up stream and down stream interaction in order to maintain an effective and efficient value chain and to get a better cost advantage. By having an effective ERP system they can handle all the transactions and information regarding the manufacturing, logistics, distribution, shipping, invoicing, accounting, human resources, shop sales, market campaigns, bargain or auction sales, promotion activities, etc. through this and also by applying internet, intranet and extranet facilities the company can avoid having excess inventories and maintain a proper inventory which is aligned with customer needs, especially when it comes to the multi brand multi channel concept. The other important fact is to identify the power position of Singer relative to their suppliers and customers with regard to the scale matters. Finally in this aspect they have to focus on managing 4Rs (responsiveness, reliability, resilience, relationships) thoroughly to strengthen the linkages between the customers and suppliers, where the competitor would find hard to break. Best fit in an organization can be illustrated as follows; 4.2 Supply Chain Agility, Flexibility and Responsiveness Demand in todays volatile markets causes most of the current pressure on supply chains to compete as networks and to use planned network configurations to drive flexibility, agility and responsiveness. Agile or Lean? Analysis of Current Situation In the current status of Singer Sri Lanka, they keep sufficient stocks of finished goods in ware houses of each channel and also raw materials at the main Singer factories, where some times it can cause huge losses because of excess of stocks. Though the overall lead time is reduced when under taking special orders such as providing customized items for corporate clients locally or internationally, there can be situations where timely response may be poor. Possible Strategic Recommendations By making the supply chain more agile it can make the operation of the company more smoother. For this applying the seven principles which is given in Table 1will be important. Efficient responsiveness should be improved by de-coupling the up stream and down stream processes and utilizing the principles of postponement wherever possible. As the company strongly believe that there should be a flexibility and variability in all categories. It can be improved by developing new products, by incorporating some product changes to fit the customer specifications and also quickly able to respond increasing and decreasing demand due to the seasonal sales pattern and also can position different brads to appeal the different customer segments in terms of quality and the price. Table 1: Basic Principles for the creation of agile supply chain Principle Application Synchronize activities through shared information Needs to enhance the companys new IT systems (ERP system, Electronic fund transfer, Internet, e-mail etc.) which enable effective on line purchasing other services Work Smarter not harder Reduce non value adding activities such as manual activities identify the parallel processes in the company (already this is done up to certain level of transactions) Partner suppliers to reduce inbound lead times Work more closer with suppliers and share information about different demand schedules to reduce time delays Seek to reduce complexity Enhance the advance capabilities of information systems increase the transparency of processes to reduce confusion delays Postpone the final configuration This is already being used for certain range of items Manage processes not just functions Needs to manage across its supply chain or the inter related cross functional processes to be more flexible agile in responding to demand Utilise appropriate performance metrics Singer already uses performance monitoring metrics, but can make out the other possibilities which fits the structure of the organization do necessary modifications design improvements Enhance the supply chain strategies through agility: 4.3 How well the Singer Sri Lanka Supply Chain is Synchronized? Synchronization implies that each stage in the supply chain is connected to the other and that they all march to the same drumbeat. The way in which entities in a supply chain become connected is through shared information. (Source: Christopher 2005, p.177) Key processes that needs to be linked, up stream and down stream to supply chain synchronization of Singer Sri Lanka: Key Processes Analysis of Current Situation Possible Strategic Recommendations Planning Scheduling This is done by sharing information between each tier, but the main focus is on the first tier customers suppliers. Properly linked information system should be implemented with an integrated ERP system in order to have a proper control over the lead time inventory. Design Since the poor communication with the tier 2 suppliers it has lead to a lack of market innovation and confidence about new design developments IT based systems (e-mails, internet etc.) can be used to optimize the connectivity among all the tiers New Product Introduction Though this is done through the differentiation strategies, still there are loop holes where the trends are not clearly identified and communicated When this comes to the bulk production it is essential to identify obsolete items and replace them with new product designs. to gain competitive advantage For this properly linked network channel is essential Product Content Management When a change is required it has implemented after going through a very long process where totally based on the hierarchy of management, which is very time consuming and complex Should have a proper alignment with the strategies and the critical processes in the supply chain to minimize the impact over the customers Order Management Most of the main suppliers have their own individual order tracking systems and basically the order processing is done by basic methods as communicating via telephones, where timeliness is a question To increase the agility with the highly volatile market demands Singer has to be inline with new technological advancements where they can reduce the order management time and optimize the efficiency of the whole supply chain Sourcing Procurement This is performed well in the current system, but this is limited due to high confidentiality As some of the suppliers work with competitors this should be remain but can be improve the visibility by having strategic partnerships Properly synchronized system would be as follows: 4.4 Other recommendations for further improvements in supply chain management: Mini Warehouse Concept: Since singer has more than 500 retail shops islandwide, keeping sufficient stock at each locations is involving considerable amount of money. So its better to locate mini warehouses in each district to maintain required inventories. Be Green Through Reverse Logistics: Company can reverting back all outdated and obsolete goods directly from the customers and try to send these to their suppliers at a nominal amount, which they are sometimes in a position to upgrade the products again. This reverse logistic concept can extend into having a more greeny environment as a responsible corporate citizen. Convert Major Suppliers Into Strategic Partners: Singer can try to discuss with its major international suppliers and convert them to strategic partners via joint venture or partnership agreements, which would enable to have a long lasting business relationship to both parties. Optimize Supply Chain: By nature consumer durable market is categorized as a seasonal market. Singer sales pattern has two main seasonal effects throughout the year (Apr/May and Nov/Dec). Its quite common to run out of the stock during seasonal times and having excess stock during off seasons. Both ways this is not good for the company since they are loosing customers during the season while considerable amount of money tied up in the inventory during the off season period. Structure Vs Strategy: Companys typical tall hierarchical structure in not infavour of the decision making system since each minor decisions should go above the line to the top hierarchy, which takes lots of time to get the final decision to the down the layers. If the company can adequately empowered its middle and first line managers company can be more proactive than the existing situation. Red to Blue Ocean Strategy: Singer has number of head to head competitors in the market who are engaging in the business in similar nature. So company can immediately identify its strengths and competitive priorities (which can be experienced management team, islandwide network, etc) to be edge over the others in the competitive environment. In other words they can enjoy lots of advantages by following the Blue ocean strategy. 5.0 Conclusion Supply Chain Management principles and techniques are not common to all the industries. Some times it can be a complex scenario in which it also change time to time due to internal industrial factors such as union actions, product line changes, design changes, etc. and due to external factors such as changes in economic condition, other company rules and regulations imposed by the government, new market competition, international market forces, etc. Singer Sri Lanka has strong formulated strategies and also as per the analysis carried out considering the strategic recommendations will be more effective in achieving sustainable competitive advantage in the industry by efficiently managing its supply chain. So it is vital to be more realistic when selecting the proper supply chain management principles and tools in a highly volatile and dynamic environment. This also can be result in reflecting the bottom line profitability of the organization.

Colon Cancer Essay -- Biology Biological Medical Essays

Colon Cancer Disease Name: Colon Cancer Chromosome Number: #2 Locus Designation: 2p16 In the summer of 1993 researchers discovered a gene, known as MSH2, is lacking within colon cells. The MSH2 genes main function is to detect and correct small mutations that occur during cell division. The cause of colon cancer arises when this gene does not provide this protection to colon cells. This lack of protection causes multiple mutations within the colon cells until they become cancerous. Only about 6% of all colorectal cancer is said to be hereditary. Sporadic, or non hereditary colorectal cancer, makes up the other 94%. Hereditary colorectal cancer is made up of two syndromes- HNPCC (Hereditary Non Polyposis Colorectal Cancer) and FAP (Familial Adenomatous Polyposis). HNPCC is estimated to be 5% of the total hereditary colorectal cancer. HNPCC is a autosomal dominant disease, meaning that children have a 50% chance of inheriting the genetic trait from one of the parents being autosomally dominant. The parents who are autosomal dominant have a defect in their mis- match genes which identify and repair somatic mutations in DNA during cell division. Four genes have been identified as carrying this mutation; hMSH2, hMHL1, hPMS1, and hPMS2. ( h standing for hereditary) FAP constitutes only about 0.5 % of all hereditary colorectal cancer. It is also an autosomal dominant disease. Patients with FAP have a 100% risk of getting colorectal cancer, but it can be avoided. FAP is caused by a mutation in the APC gene on chromosome 5. The APC gene is able to be detected by a blood test. A study done in 1994 revealed that since the time the APC gene was identified 100 different mutations leading to st... ...er, making it the third leading cancer caused death rate. The main objective of doctors who deal with patients with colorectal cancer is not to cure, but actually to reduce mortality. With recent advancements research are finding new links to the effects of colorectal cancer genetically and physically. Works Cited: Caspari, Reiner. 3/12/94. Familial Adenomatous Polyposis: Mutations at Codon 1309 and Early Onset of Colon Cancer. Lancet. Vol 343, pg. 629. Key, Sandra W. and Marble, Michelle, 11/23/98, Study Finds Gene Marker Could Predict Colon Cancer. Cancer Weekly Plus, pg. 14, 2/3p. Goldinger, Michael. Colorectal Cancer- An Overview. The Colorectal Cancer Home page. Hochhauser, Daniel. 4/19/97, Colon Cancer Genotypes Change in Two Ways. Lancet, Vol. 349, pg. 1151. Newsweek, 12/13/93. Finding the Colon Cancer Gene. Vol. 122, pg. 72. Colon Cancer Essay -- Biology Biological Medical Essays Colon Cancer Disease Name: Colon Cancer Chromosome Number: #2 Locus Designation: 2p16 In the summer of 1993 researchers discovered a gene, known as MSH2, is lacking within colon cells. The MSH2 genes main function is to detect and correct small mutations that occur during cell division. The cause of colon cancer arises when this gene does not provide this protection to colon cells. This lack of protection causes multiple mutations within the colon cells until they become cancerous. Only about 6% of all colorectal cancer is said to be hereditary. Sporadic, or non hereditary colorectal cancer, makes up the other 94%. Hereditary colorectal cancer is made up of two syndromes- HNPCC (Hereditary Non Polyposis Colorectal Cancer) and FAP (Familial Adenomatous Polyposis). HNPCC is estimated to be 5% of the total hereditary colorectal cancer. HNPCC is a autosomal dominant disease, meaning that children have a 50% chance of inheriting the genetic trait from one of the parents being autosomally dominant. The parents who are autosomal dominant have a defect in their mis- match genes which identify and repair somatic mutations in DNA during cell division. Four genes have been identified as carrying this mutation; hMSH2, hMHL1, hPMS1, and hPMS2. ( h standing for hereditary) FAP constitutes only about 0.5 % of all hereditary colorectal cancer. It is also an autosomal dominant disease. Patients with FAP have a 100% risk of getting colorectal cancer, but it can be avoided. FAP is caused by a mutation in the APC gene on chromosome 5. The APC gene is able to be detected by a blood test. A study done in 1994 revealed that since the time the APC gene was identified 100 different mutations leading to st... ...er, making it the third leading cancer caused death rate. The main objective of doctors who deal with patients with colorectal cancer is not to cure, but actually to reduce mortality. With recent advancements research are finding new links to the effects of colorectal cancer genetically and physically. Works Cited: Caspari, Reiner. 3/12/94. Familial Adenomatous Polyposis: Mutations at Codon 1309 and Early Onset of Colon Cancer. Lancet. Vol 343, pg. 629. Key, Sandra W. and Marble, Michelle, 11/23/98, Study Finds Gene Marker Could Predict Colon Cancer. Cancer Weekly Plus, pg. 14, 2/3p. Goldinger, Michael. Colorectal Cancer- An Overview. The Colorectal Cancer Home page. Hochhauser, Daniel. 4/19/97, Colon Cancer Genotypes Change in Two Ways. Lancet, Vol. 349, pg. 1151. Newsweek, 12/13/93. Finding the Colon Cancer Gene. Vol. 122, pg. 72.

Animals in Captivity

The zoo is packed with children, running everywhere. They laugh and smile as they watch the animals at the zoo sleep. What these children do not realize is that these animals are dying on the inside. Animals that live at the zoo are extremely depressed. These animals can suffer severe psychological disorders from being out of their natural environment. But others argue that keeping these animals in captivity will help keep endangered species alive. However, the disadvantages of keeping animals in captivity are becoming more and more serious, and more people are beginning to believe that animals should not be held captive.Animals should not be kept in captivity because of the negative impact it can have on their life. On Christmas Day, in the year 2007 a tiger broke out of its enclosure at the San Francisco Zoo. Once out of its cage, the tiger attacked 3 people, severely injuring two people, and killing one. Unfortunately, this was not the first time that this tiger had shown aggressi on towards people. A year before this incident, this tiger had injured a zoo keeper during a public feeding (Roberts, 2008).In captivity animals are isolated from their natural habitat, and are provided with very little physical and mental stimulation. According to the Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA), facilities with potential dangerous animals, must have appropriate safety procedures in order to prevent attacks by these animals. Sadly, these procedures were not followed at the San Francisco Zoo (Roberts, 2008). Another incident like this occurred with a killer whale and its trainer. Dawn Brancheau was drug to the bottom of her killer whale’s tank at Sea World in Orlando, Florida.Although these whales are called, â€Å"killers† there is no record of them killing human beings in the wild. According to the Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society, attacks by killer whales in captivity happens more than you think (McCarthy, 2010). Why do these animals attack in capt ivity and not in the wild? The answer to this question is believed to be linked to captivity related stress. In the wild, these animals are very social, living with 10 to 20 other whales. Placing these animals in captivity alters their behavior, and leads these animals to have unpredictable anger.Because of this animal welfare campaigners believe that killer whales should not be placed into captivity, but you can not just place the animals that were so easily caught into the wild again (McCarthy, 2010). People argue that keeping these kinds of animals in captivity provides the world with numerous educational benefits, but accidents like this are happening more and more. These incidents make a person wonder if these animals were never to be placed into captivity, would these tragedies have happened. Animals should not be kept in captivity because it has been proved to have a negative impact on their lives.Generally, animals that live in zoos suffer from poor well-being. Although, the se animals receive veterinary care that they normally would not receive in the wild, they can suffer from severe stress. Evidence has been found that psychological needs of these animals are not being met. Not only do these animals suffer mentally, but they also suffer physically too. After being placed in captivity, some animals can become susceptible to opportunistic infections such as jaw abscesses (Mason, 2009). Also the giraffe has a short lifespan in captivity then it would normally have in the wild.The reasoning behind this is that they have low energy intake in the wild and poor nutritional status (Mason, 2009). Many animals that live in captivity do not seem the flourish in the same way that they would in the wild. Many animals that live in captivity do not get the kind of exercise that their bodies need, especially elephants (Smith, 2008). Being locked up in a facility might be helping these animals avoid poachers, but the lack of exercise is causing cardiovascular disease . Elephants that live in captivity do not live nearly as long as they would in the wild. 7 elephants were examined at a British zoo, and only 11 of them were able to walk correctly. It is said that advancements are being made to improve elephant environments in captivity, but numerous zoos have shut down their elephant attractions (Smith, 2008). Many people are attracted to keeping wild animals as pets. They believe the wild animals to be interesting and exciting. At a young age, the animals may seem easier to tame, but the older these animals get, the more aggressive they tend to become. Many problems can develop from keeping a wild animal as a pet.Wild animals have specific needs that have to be met, in order for them to prosper. â€Å"Only the most exceptional zoos and wildlife centers provide a living area that somewhat resembles the natural habitat of these animals, but it is virtually impossible to provide sufficient space for larger species†(CFHS). In captivity animals do not lose their wild instincts. They can be extremely unpredictable, and if provoked they can cause severe harm to people. Some wild animals, such as reptiles and hedgehogs can actually carry bacteria called salmonella, which is very easily transmitted to humans.Exotic animals can be very social, and need to have a companion of the same species living with them. If the animal is kept isolated from its kind, then it can suffer psychologically (CFHS). Many wild animals that are kept as pets often get abandoned because the owner was not able to meet of its needs. Others try to place the animal back into its natural habitat, but after being in captivity for many years, the animal is not able to re-adapt to this environment. When these animals are abandoned, it is difficult to find a new home for them.Sadly, most of these animals end up being humanely euthanized, or die from stress of being moved from one environment to another (CFHS). There are strict guidelines for some animals such as penguins that live in captivity. In some areas of the world, it is actually illegal to hold these animals captive. Due to some of the elements that penguins are exposed to in captivity, some can become very ill, or even die (Penguin Facts, 2009). Although, a lot of these facilities are cleaned regularly, the illnesses can spread extremely fast to members of the penguin colony without warning.If the illness continues to spread throughout the colony then the penguins are all at risk of becoming ill, or even possibly dying (Penguin Facts, 2009). When new members are added to a colony, penguin may feel the urge to migrate, which is an instinct they must ignore in captivity(Penguin Facts, 2009). In zoos, it is commonly seen that two males or two females will have a relationship, but in the wild this is not seen (Penguin Facts, 2009). Another animal that does not do well in captivity is the monkey.Behind bars these animals are well fed and safe, but they will never be able to socializ e with other types of monkeys like they normally would be able to in the wild. Victor Hugo explains, â€Å"People think they can tame these wild creatures because they're so cute when they're babies – but they inevitably bite someone and then become a problem†(Macaskill, 2011). Monkeys are believed to be cute and cuddly creatures, but this animal can actually feel threatened by this kind of attention from a human. Eventually, leading to attacking what it feels threatened by, as it would do in the wild.According to Victor, â€Å"Every day a monkey spends in captivity makes a difference and once they've become too humanized, they become non-releasable† (Macaskill, 2011). An argument many have placed in the defense of zoos is educational benefits and conservation. Not all zoos are bad. According to Michael Hutchins, PhD, director and William Conway Chair of the Department of Conservation and Science for the American Zoo and Aquarium Association, there are two kinds of zoos, zoos that meet AZA standards and zoos that just aren’t up to par (Keuhn, 2011).He also discussed that in the past few years, zoos have changed from focusing on preserving species by captive breeding to preserving habitats and species that live in the wild. Zoos support conservation by educating members of society, and raising money for conservation projects. They can also help develop technologies, and with scientific research (Keuhn, 2011). It is said that by observing animals in captivity, scientists can find valuable information that they would not be able to gather in by observing animals in the wild. However, conservation is not justification for zoos.Dr. Hutchins says that animal welfare is equally important. The AZA has taken a number of steps to improve animal welfare. They must promote natural habitats, and ensure quality care of their animals. They have also outreached to substandard zoos, to help close down the worst facilities (Keuhn, 2011). Some people argue that animals do not have rights. They believe that in order to keep endangered species alive, the animals must be captured. Zoos can also provide animals with safety from poachers and wildlife predators (Nakate, 2010).Some zoos do treat animals in a harsh manner, but there is improvement being made in the quality of care being provided to animals. There are many educational benefits that zoos and conservation centers provide people with. These places are trying to make more people aware of the environment (Nakate, 2010). Many schools take field trips to zoos in order to educate children, early in their lives about animals, and their environment. Teaching children about the environment, at a young age will help raise awareness about environmental issues later on in their lives.Terminating all zoos would hinder knowledge about some animals. For many scientists, it is hard for them to get a good look at animals in the wild. By placing some of these creatures in captivity, it enab les scientists to get a closer look at these species and their behavior. Without zoos, conducting research would become a hassle. Scientists would have to go into the wild for several days to track the animal down, then once found, they would have to try to observe from a safe distance. Most penguins seem to do fairly well in zoos, and conservation centers.Captivity is beneficial to penguins that have been injured in the wild, and would have died without the help from animal caretakers (Penguin Facts, 2009). In the wild, penguin eggs have the chance of being destroyed by predators, but in captivity there is a chance for all the eggs to survive. Also, this gives animal caretakers a chance to help feed the baby penguins that the adults will not care for (Penguin Facts, 2009). Ultimately, captivity is very beneficial to the penguin population. Although, it may seem like zoos and other conservation centers provide people with educational benefits that is not always the case.Most childre n, who visit the zoo, do not even read the informational guides that are placed at each exhibit. Generally, people spend a few moments at each display, to take pictures of the animals then move on to the next without even taking a glance at any information given. While, not all zoos are bad, many zoos out there do not take proper care of their animals, leading them to a lifetime of misery, and pain. Without proper care, animals cannot function normally. Animals that do not live in their natural environment do not get the right amount of socialization that they need.This can cause severe physiological effects on them. The stress of moving animals from one environment to another can be harmful as well. Even though these animals are captive, they are still wild animals, and have natural instincts to protect themselves. If an animal in captivity believes it is in danger, it will attack a human, causing severe injury, or death. Some animals in captivity will attack just because it is in their nature. Once placing an animal in captivity, it cannot be placed back into its natural environment. Animals have a hard time re-adapting to the wild.Placing animals in captivity has its obvious benefits, but do these benefits outweigh the disadvantages that it has on an animal? When placing animals in zoos, people are not thinking about the natural well-being of them. They are only thinking of the scientific benefits and entertainment values that these animals bring to the world. Keeping animals in zoos may help out endangered species, but they will never be able to prosper outside of the cages of those facilities. Is an animal truly an animal when it’s trapped behind bars?

Management†Change Essay

Change is important to people because the world and most of the people are changing. If people do not take attention of it and refuse to change, they will be eliminated by the world. People who are fear or hesitate to change must try to step out and start to change now. People can overcome their fear of change by 3 steps; first, they must find out and confront the issues that cause them afraid of change. Then, keep your mind to think the opportunities instead of threat. After that, move on against the fear. In addition, managers must be patient to people in order for people have enough time to make any adjustment for them to adapt new things successfully. Listen to employees and counsels them with ease. To be succeeding in change, managers have to take a lot of issues into consideration. It may be hard for managers to implement change, but here are some suggestions to managers to implement change successfully. First of all, managers should have a good planning of change before they carry out. Queensland government (n. ) pointed out that successfully managing the complexity of change is virtually impossible without a robust plan that is supported by strong project management. Planning is help manager to be aware of what they want to achieve and how they going to achieve it. Secondly, managers should encourage participate. When anticipating making a change, get the team members who will be affected by that change involved early on, find out what make them afraid of change and find out the way to overcome their fear to support change (Stark, 2010). The key to change is to let go the fear—Rosanne Cash (Rick, 2011). To let go people’s fear, managers should often remind people that they are a team and nobody is alone. Managers should also let people understand clearly why they need to change; many people will resist change unless they see that the change is urgently needed and remind them the positive consequences of being change. Then, managers must be able to listen to people’s suggestion. When managers want to apply change, they should not only announce to the people. When managers intending to introduce change, the planning process should involve input from the workforce on the best way to implement the change. People ill be far more committed to the change if they see that their perceptions have been considered and with a sense of ‘ownership’ over ideas and concepts, they will embrace the change with open arms (Future prospect, n. d). Beside that, managers have to monitor the progress over time and make adjustment as necessary (Hamlin, 2011). Managers must make sur e that all the activities are helping the team change effectively otherwise, it is wasting time for people to put so much effort on activities that are not helping them to change. It will make people feel tired for changing and then lose the interest and motivation to involve in change. mployees’ right and control (Davidson et al. , 2009, p. 38). If managers change without consider politic, it may lead people hesitate of change. Thus, causes failure in change. Most of the authors agree that management is connected to another field, because in order for a manager to has a good management. Manager must understand from environment to human resources. Not only those fields which are mentioned above need to be considered, managers also need to consider about the philosophy, psychology and also anthropology According to American Society of Mechanical Engineers (Karmarkar, 2012, p. 1), â€Å"Management is the art and science of preparing, organizing and directing human efforts to c ontrol the forces and utilize the material of nature for the benefit of men. † It is consider as science because management problems can be approached in ways that are rational, logical, objective and systematic. Then, it also called as art because although managers try to be scientific as possible but they must make decision and solve problems on the basis of intuition, experience, instinct and personal insights (Davidson, Simon, Woods, Griffin, 2009, p. 21). Thus, people hesitate of change is not an issue that warrants examination only in the study of management, it also in science and art field. Management science has to learn from other fields in order to understand of what people do and why they do it. One of the fields can management learn from is Sociology (Management’s connection to other field of study for principles of management, 2008). Sociology is the study of people in relationship to their fellow human beings (Robbins et al. , 2011, p. 16). The problem of sociology that link to managers is the society changes such as globalisation and cultural diversity. During the days organisation is changing towards globalization, people who are lack of confidence to change in order to compete with others will hesitate to change. Further, different culture have different attitude in their work. For an example, traditional Chinese will think that changing company bring them risk or uncertainty. In general, managers mostly need to understand the affect of social forces in any consideration of management in that society (Davidson et al. , 2009, p. 37). Further, managers have to look into economics. Economics is concerned with the allocation and distribution of scarce resources (Robbins et al. , 2011, p. 16). Economic system and economic conditions are associated in management. During bad economic conditions such as economy recession or depression, most of the people are not dare to involve in any change because they will worry that they loss what they already hold in hand in this suffer period. Thus, managers have to look into the economic condition of that period to determine whether change can be done at that particular period and have an effective result in change. In addition, the relevant field with management is political science. Political are the government institutions, attitudes and policies that affect business (Davidson et al. , 2009, p. 37). Specific topics concern to political scientists include structuring of conflict, allocating power and manipulating power for individual self interest (Robbins et al. , 2011, p. 16). Government nowadays is increasing aware to organisation’s moral and legal responsibility, this forces affect management theory in planning, organisational design, Robert F. Kennedy once said, â€Å"About twenty percent of the people are against any change. † (Stark, 2010) Why people are so afraid of change? By reading the text, the reason that individuals dislike to change is because it will replaces the known with uncertainty, it requires people to do things out of habit, people fear of losing, disagreement with the necessity to change and limited tolerance for change (Robbins, DeCenzo, Coulter, Woods, 2011, p. 193). Besides all these causes, there are more reason about why individuals dislike or afraid of change. First of all, an individual may against towards all new things (Frank Calberg Service, 2007). For an example an individual maybe complaining or refuse to learn new things. People who dislike learning or accepting new knowledge will give a lot of excuse to escape changing by saying that they have no time, no money to pay to attend courses or training (Redman, 2012). Secondly, people are self doubt (Pratt, 2012). Usually people who are self doubt mostly named themselves not good enough, not smart enough, boring, unattractive, and unlikeable, self doubt can lead them to get defensive (Fox, Sokol, 2009). People who are in self doubt situation will defense themselves do not do others thing that they never try before because they don’t have enough confidence to change (Exposing fear of change, 2011). Further, individuals who are fear of change may because they afraid the bad experience in the past repeat in their life (Radwan, 2012). Individuals who had tried to change in their past but obtained a traumatic experience of change that haunts them will affect them feel so afraid of changing. However, Dr Swaim (2011) argued that people do not afraid of change. He claimed that if people afraid of change then how to explain that there is a big changes in election victory of a little known junior senator form Illinious, Barack Hussein Obama, whose 2007based on the slogan â€Å"change we can believe in†. In addition, a psychologist and life coach Dr Suzy Green (n. d) also argued that most of the people find change is scary is just an excuse. She also claimed that individual makes excuse is because they has low confident or failure in past of changing. Secondly, old habits of individuals is ingrained and it is hard to shake off the behaviors that been developed for a long time, she explained that the excuses people make when they are not ready to tackle their behaviors need to be turned around. The movie of The Queen focuses on individual’s change and it pointed out that change request individual to give up the comfortable ways of thinking and acting. Further, comfort zone is the external environment tends to be placid or at least changes are slow or predictable and it has the ability to change (Jarret, 2009, p. 44). In another word, individual is required to give up the habits they used to be in daily life. For individual to leave their comfort zone is sounds scary to them because it will make them feel anxious (Pawlik-Kienlen, 2007). Individual will feel anxious because they afraid of failure, afraid of new things, fear of criticism and fear of discomfort (O’Callahan, 2012). In addition, Jeffery Schwartz and Sharon Begley in the article claimed that it is hard near the core of brain if habits that a person form by training and experience. Further, brain use intense energy in processing new material, this process enquiry brain to work hard to match new material. Chris Berdik (2012) agrees by saying that evaluating every new experience in detail would be tough on our brains and it would hog energy and attention that could be better used elsewhere. Furthermore, accept new things require forming new connections within the brain, which results in greater conscious effort and attention on our part People need to do their work by writing down everything but nowadays everyone is using a computer or laptop to help them finish all theirs works without any delays. Further, nowadays more companies are trying to be globalisation instead of doing business within own country to earn more profit and individual who working in that particular company gets higher salary and maybe get a chance to fly. All these changes to people in an organisation are easily to be seen and it seems like bringing them a lot of benefits. So, is it can be concluded that changing is easy to be achieved for an individual and they love to change without any hesitate? It cannot be judged shallowly, we have to look deep inside before making a conclusion. A deeper discussion will be presented in the following literary works.

Population and Health essays

Population and Health essays In their article Population and Health (Time August 26, 2002:A9,)Jeffrey Kluger and Andrea Dorfman predicted that with the decreasing of its growth rate, the world population will level off at about 11 billion in the last half of this century. However, although economic development and family-planning have helped reduce birth rate, the slow down of population growth in the poorest parts of the world was because of wrong reasons: infectious diseases, especially AIDs. They concluded that family planning and health care can help control population growth and build healthy economies as well. It is possible to reduce the world population and increase life expectancy at the same time. According to statistics published by World Watch Institute, life expectancy appears inversely propotional to fertility rate. North America, Europe and Oceania have the longest life expectancies of about 75 years and the lowest fertility rate of 2 to 3 births per woman while Africa has the shortest life expectancy of 51.4 years and the highest fertility rate of 5 birth per woman from 1995 to 2000. Latin America and Asia are in the middle with life expectancies of about 67.5 years and fertility rates of about 3 per woman. Considering that America, Europe and Oceania are the most developed region while Africa is the poorest continent, we can infer that the poorer the country is, the higher the fertility rate and the shorter the life expectancy it has. From the above information, we can see that economic development, population and health are closely related. Poor families tend to ignore family planning and consequently have more children, which make the family even poorer. Children raised in these families are usually denied good health care and good education, negatively affecting economic growth. This is a vicious cycle. Family planning and health care are ways to break out of this cycle. As Kluger and Dorfman observed, effort...

Free Essays on The American Dream

What is the American Dream? Is the American Dream still achievable? What is an opportunity and how can we plan for it? The questions remain. Everyone’s dream is to own their own business and to be their own manager. Proper steps and timing must be used in order to reach this so called â€Å"American dream†. However, it is the steps that deter people from achieving their dream. Opportunity is only available for people that desire to achieve. We live in a market economy. A "market" is a place where goods are bought and sold. This also means that the market or marketplace is the possibility of sale. Goods "find a market.† If you have a product, eventually you will find a place in the market where it can be most profitable. There is also a market for services. Services can be bought and sold the same way that commodities are bought and sold. Whether it be a service or a commodity, if there is a demand for it the product and/or commodity will be sold. Markets are opened to those who want to sell their product or commodity. Markets are also available for the convenience of those looking to purchase a particular product or service. The market represents an opportunity for all, buyers, and sellers. A market economy works on market â€Å"pressures† that develop for different commodities. These â€Å"pressures† are defined as an offering of the product, the choice of whether or not the product or service should be bought and time constrai nts. As business owners glimpse the future, decisions are made on the basis of the following factors: (1) Profit (2) Capital Investments (3) Production results. The owner of the business will review what profit has been made from their production and what losses they have incurred through that process. After reviewing the results of the profit margin, the owner must make decisions to increase volume. This process usually involves hiring more people, buying more materials, and often bidding up their prices... Free Essays on The American Dream Free Essays on The American Dream In 1852 when John Henry Newman wrote his essay, â€Å"The Idea of a University,† he wanted to convey that a University’s purpose was to be able to educate first-rate members of the social order. Newman’s theory, although over a hundred years old, still applies to today’s college students; many are seeking higher educations to not only lead to successful careers, but to also become an improved person in society. In a time when human endeavor was being redesigned, as industries, philosophies, and sciences were growing and affecting the world, Newman wrote an essay explaining the ideas and goals for seeking a liberal arts education. He states in his thesis that the function of such education, â€Å"is that of training good members of society† (Newman, 1852). Now two questions come to mind about the definition of, â€Å"training,† which Newman proposed. Is it preparation for someone to obtain a lucrative profession? On the other hand, is it guidance for someone to develop into an impacting member in the social community? Newman suggests both. He writes, â€Å"It is the education which gives a man a clear conscious view of his own opinions and judgments, a truth in developing them, and an eloquence in expressing them, and a force in urge them. It teaches him to see things as they are, to go right to the point, to disentangle a skein of though, to detect what is sophistical, and to discard what is irrelevant. It prepares him to fill any post with credit, and to master any subject with facility.† (Newman, 1852). Thus defining a student who has received his degree and is ready to enter a professional field of work, as not only being prepared to perform the work, but also to carry it out at a higher level than expectation s were set to. He is a man well, â€Å"trained,† to overcome any job related obstacles he may encounter. â€Å"He is at home in any society, he has common ground with every class; he is able to listen; he can ask a ... Free Essays on The American Dream What is the American Dream? Is the American Dream still achievable? What is an opportunity and how can we plan for it? The questions remain. Everyone’s dream is to own their own business and to be their own manager. Proper steps and timing must be used in order to reach this so called â€Å"American dream†. However, it is the steps that deter people from achieving their dream. Opportunity is only available for people that desire to achieve. We live in a market economy. A "market" is a place where goods are bought and sold. This also means that the market or marketplace is the possibility of sale. Goods "find a market.† If you have a product, eventually you will find a place in the market where it can be most profitable. There is also a market for services. Services can be bought and sold the same way that commodities are bought and sold. Whether it be a service or a commodity, if there is a demand for it the product and/or commodity will be sold. Markets are opened to those who want to sell their product or commodity. Markets are also available for the convenience of those looking to purchase a particular product or service. The market represents an opportunity for all, buyers, and sellers. A market economy works on market â€Å"pressures† that develop for different commodities. These â€Å"pressures† are defined as an offering of the product, the choice of whether or not the product or service should be bought and time constrai nts. As business owners glimpse the future, decisions are made on the basis of the following factors: (1) Profit (2) Capital Investments (3) Production results. The owner of the business will review what profit has been made from their production and what losses they have incurred through that process. After reviewing the results of the profit margin, the owner must make decisions to increase volume. This process usually involves hiring more people, buying more materials, and often bidding up their prices... Free Essays on The American Dream Throughout the history of our country, the United States of America has often been referred to as the â€Å"land of opportunity.† Though in some situations this may have been the case, for most Americans, especially in the nineteenth century, every day life was an ongoing struggle. Due to several factors, the US had a hard time living up to the expectations of its citizens. The citizens who faced the greatest hardships in this country were immigrants from around the world. Immigrants expected to come to America and find streets paved with gold. They thought that all they would have to do in order to achieve their fortune was chip a piece of gold off the street. In reality, they found obstacles not so dissimilar to those from which they were seeking asylum. Often they could not find employment as easily as the American born citizens. Those who did find work were forced to work long days at a minimal salary. In the book America Firsthand, there is an account written by a woman who migrated from Poland when she was a child. She worked in a Cigar shop in Cleveland, Ohio for nominal pay. The conditions in this were terrible and can easily be referred to as a â€Å"sweat-shop.† The children working in the shop were worked long hours with occasionally defective materials but were driven to produce more at a faster rate. The owner of the shop w as very greedy and unfair. He would look at the work done by the workers and would contest the smallest of imperfections in the cigars that were made. The imperfections would result in a wage penalty even if it was due to poor quality tobacco. As the owner became wealthier, he increased the size of his operation from a shop to a full-fledged factory. The mistreatment continued and the account goes on to describe an ensuing strike organized by the workers. Finally, the owner agreed to higher wages but the mistreatment continued. At the end of the account, the workers formed a small union b...

Books Were an Important Part of Life in the Late 18th Century Essay Example for Free (#18)

Books Were an Important Part of Life in the Late 18th Century Essay Learning is one of important processes in human being life. It is self-evident that human development cannot stand without a proper learning. Since Learning provides unlimited Benefits, people should learn and experience it. The Reading is being reimagined over the time period. I’ll discuss about it later in this section. There are several ways that promotes Learning such as Books, electronic books, Movies, Periodicals such as Magazine, journals or Newspapers and Audio/Visual clips. Nowadays Libraries plays a critical role on keeping the Books alive due to the invention Mass media communications. I’ll talk further about this later in this section. Let’s take a closer look about Books. The book is one of the valuable sources of knowledge that provided numerous benefits, such benefits are it takes us into different worlds and cultures and it helps to learn other languages as well. So, we can tell that a book can be a truthful friend which helps to learn how to behave in practical life. Books cover different genres such as Comedy, Drama, Romance, Adventure, fiction etc. Director General of UNESCO addressed 1972 as the â€Å"International Book Year† and taking â€Å"Booking for all† as their Motto. UNESCO organizes a yearly event called â€Å"World Book day or International Day of the book† on 23th April every year worldwide to promote Reading, Publishing and Copyright. So we can understand How Important it is Reading in a life of Mankind. It was first celebrated on 23th April 1995. Writing believed to be developed between the 7th millennium BC and 4th millennium BC in china. Ancient people used to write using stones but wood was the first medium to write in the actual form of Book. From time to Time, the new technology inventions played vital part in the World. The Cambridge University Press was founded in 1534 and the first book was printed in 1583. Also the first press was founded in Cambridge, Massachusetts one of the North American British colonies in the year of Year 1639. Then first North American Public library was founded in Boston in the year of 1653. Eighteenth Century Americans were mainly interested in reading books about practical arts, religious and the politics as well. American does have a long tradition on reading habits since long back. Thus they are proved to be improved in vocal, public expressions both towards and against throughout reading skills. Novels are the entertaining seldom read by Americans in the 18th century. The nation’s first novel was published in the late 18th century. The first two novels to be published were Digges’ â€Å"Adventure of Alonso† and Brown’s â€Å"The power of Sympathy†. Women were also contributed to the success of Novels, Such writers were Susuana Rowson for her novel â€Å"Charlotte: A tale of truth†. This navel was re-issued under the title of Charlotte Temple, which sold more than million and half copies. The growth of novel reading grew rapidly towards the end of the year 1750. The main reason for the growth of novel readers was the rapid growth of the source of book materials such as book seller, public library and lending library. An average person was able to obtain their reading materials from booksellers, public libraries as well through lending libraries which were a cheaper option since they were able to rent the books for a small fee. Due to the vast number of readers between the year 1773 and 1798 the number of book trading companies as well as the number of public libraries grew rapidly at faster rate than the increasing population. While the population doubled in the period of 1790’s, the numbers of the circulating libraries were tripled. So in the late 18th century, the circulation libraries played a huge influence placing reading interest among the American public. Social libraries were able to expand their firms by joining the book selling companies and they were able to purchase and loan the books for a lower rate. By the year of 1790, books were the main source of entertainment, information and literature for an average person. According to the catalogues of the sellers, the percentage of fiction readers increased by nine percent between 1754 to 1765 and increased to thirteen percent between 1791 to 1800. Circulating Library catalogues contained fifty-eight percent fiction by the year of 1800 which was higher compared (twenty-eight percent) to the early 18th century. Though the books were little expensive at that period, the people were able to join in the circulating libraries for lower rate which is another proof that people were encouraged to read during this century. During the late 18th century, the book sellers showed interest requesting novels from their suppliers. As an example Robert Ben Winans (1975) states that â€Å"In 1801, a bookseller in North Carolina wrote to his supplier requesting that â€Å"Mr. Carey will be so obliging as to send as many of the Novels as he procure; it will be mutually our interest to keep a good collection, as the good folks her love light reading†. This letter accompanied an order called a -typical order of the period about 1800, which listed sixty-three books every one of them a novel†. (â€Å"The Growth of a Novel-Reading Public in Late-Eighteenth-Century America. Early American Literature. Vol. 9. No. 3 (Winter, 1975): 267-275. Print). This is a proof that tells the novels were read by rapidly growing people in the late 18th century. This period is described as Novel reading age. I strongly believe that books today have been replaced by other forms of mass communication such as Media, newspape r and magazine, Web. Though there were so many significant political, economic developments redesigned the new world, the dramatic and unprecedented centralization of the countries and their expansion, regulations and professionalization of the state forces are still appreciable. Every time a new invention strikes in mass communications, obviously the books had to compete with that invention. The first American newspaper called â€Å"Publick Occurrences, Both Foreign and Domestick† published in early 18th century. During the early 18th century, the weekly Newspapers acted as the means of carrying of intercolonial news and also the newspapers carried war news at that period . So people were interested in reading newspapers than Books at that period. Then the industrial era started from the nineteenth century initially with the telegraph applications. The first African-American newspaper was published in 1827 called the Freedom’s Journal. Also this has been followed by the inventions such as magazines, telegraph, printers, phonograph, postal discounted rates, photographic films and radio were in particular. So the century that belongs to the industrial revolution start for the mass media that affected the books and readers. Since the radio, television and movie inventions in the early 1900s, the information had started passing through voice than text form. People started feeling that listening to audio is more comfortable than reading. In 1980, first online newspaper was published on web . From time moves on, the physical form of book transformed in intangible form of text due the new inventions in this world. During the late 1980s, Information has transformed to digitalized manner and the revolution of Computer started striking the world. People believed that physically storing information was not safe, so they started storing information in digital code. In 1985, Voyagar Company stored books in CD-ROM which was the first step to the era of eBook. From then onwards, the learning has come to digital manner. Then the biggest bang to the book sales was the invention of the World Wide Web in the year of 1991. Then the first online blog was published in the year of 1997. Due to high volume of readers, authors showed an interest in writing online blogs. Convergence of Media (Video and Audio) introduced in the later 1990s. For example:-We can see presidential debates live on YouTube. So the information can be stored as Video or audio forms as well than the text form. Google has announced the Google Library Project which is digitalization of books in 2005. Nowadays libraries are playing an important role in preserving the books for the next generation. It is self-evident that physically books can’t long last because of the material and size. It is good in a way that if we store information in digital code it can long last than physically storing in a book. This generation people show interest in reading/learning, just the sales of the eBooks readers, pdf readers are the proofs. If we look into Amazon. com, we can see tons of EBooks and they also sell books as well. If we want, we can download the eBook instantly or else we have to wait till they ship it. Though the form of text (book) has changed due to new inventions, but the rate of readers has increased in the world. Earlier we had only text form but now we do have text, audio and video form as well. Nowadays people look for a better ways. I would say storing an eBook is far more convenient than carrying a book (physical book). Though the new innovation impacted the sales of the books (physical form), it’s good for the next generation to preserve the valuable information. Books Were an Important Part of Life in the Late 18th Century. (2016, Nov 29). 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The Personal Application Assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The Personal Application Assignment - Essay Example It is basically a web development and software house which serves individuals as well as business organizations to get their software and web development issues resolved. The thing I noticed at the very first day was workforce diversity at the workplace. The culture of the organization is soft and innovative. Physical premises of the software house is situated in comparatively less rush and calm area where race differences and ethnicity were noticed and hindered in many of the matters. I was a bit surprised about the issue. I was not getting how they were surviving at that place. Being a business graduation student, it attracted me to dig out the ground fact. I talked to some of the organizational employees as an informal interview (just general questioning and answering). They seemed to be fully satisfied. I was taking it as a dilemma because last vacations, my cousin brother told me about his experience of working in the same area but different organization where employee absenteei sm and turnover was so high. The reason was the same as I outlined above; race differences. I thought to get it as an adventure and I thanked to my luck that I was here. I had now decided to gather a lot from that place in order to cater my learning desires and objectives. It was a competitive work place as I could judge the work environment. A highly diverse culture was handled in very well manner. Team orientation in order to accomplish the tasks was most attractive trait of the organization. Reflective Observations While working as an assistant HR manager for partial duties, I was also attending an employee class room training session. It had not entered in to the confidential level that is why I was permitted to attend the lessons. Here I was able to interact with employees more informally. However I have not studied psychology formally in any class room, but I really feel interest in psyche of peers and numerous levels in an organization. I did not know what they perceived abou t me. But I was getting impressed their way of working and bringing the things in a flow upstream. Mr. John Fernandez, a senior training officer, is a retired employee of the same organization. He is basically from Germany and moved to USA for joining the organization on the basis of his extraordinary human resource management skills. He was now serving as a trainer for new or promoted employees in the class room session. I personally talked to him and he got my point easily that about what I wanted to know. He told me that software and web developing needs a competitive edge in order to separately place your services in the market. By diverse work force, they had competitive edge to put diverse innovations in to their offerings. They were following a wide range of personalization and customization from web design to personalized EDP software development. They had served almost every small, medium and large organization in different extents of services. Relating the matters of daily life with workplace seems to be a merely impossible task but planning and proper implementation is the key to competitive advantage. Intended information system integrity was not a big deal as they were specialized in controlling the flow of information to the right direction as well as to the accurate pace. Information technology experts who belonged to Asian regions like India or

Air Force Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Air Force - Essay Example He went on to explain that as the Army transforms, the Air Force will provide more a tactical air control, combat weather and air operations support to the Army (Vanessa Young). When analyzing the implications of what Chief Murray talked about it is clear that there will be a reduction in the Air Force's staff complement by as much as 40 000. It is assumed that the Air Force will implement re-deployment of some of the Airmen, but it must be recognized that there will be jobs lost, which will negatively effect a large amount of staff members and their families. When reading the article it became clear to me that each Airmen will have to look closely at their future prospects within the Air Force. For the next five years many Airmen can only be certain of one thing, they will be living with an exceptional level of uncertainty as the Air Force evolve and align itself to its new direction. Many positions and skills will become redundant as new technologies and equipment are phased in, and different knowledge, skills and experience are needed. Currently it is still unclear in which sections staff reduction will take place, or in which areas what type of changes will be implemented. What can be deducted from Chief Murray's revelation is that in the fields of tactical air control, combat weather and air operations are the areas that will see growth in the Air Force. Pre-emptive Action Even though the mentioned changes in the Air Force might seem to be rumors, we can accept it as a fact when coming from a prominent figure such as Chief Murray. Many Airmen may want to take a "wait and see" attitude, it is my believe that it is always better to take the initiative and prepare and equip yourself to meet challenges head on. This it is my suggestion to Air Force staff to begin with assessing themselves, establishing what their future goals are or should be. A self-assessment that include looking at the following (Dawn McKay, 2006): Values: the things that are important to you, like achievement, status, and autonomy Interests: what you enjoy doing, i.e. playing golf, taking long walks, hanging out with friends Personality: a person's individual traits, motivational drives, needs, and attitudes Skills: the activities you are good at, such as writing, computer programming, teaching Then sit down and decide if you want to stay in the Air Force, and if you do set yourself goals and objectives that will help you gain the necessary knowledge, skills and experience to fit into those fields that will be expanded in the Air Force. If you cannot see yourself working in one of those fields, you should start contemplating employment in the civilian sector. According to Richard Piske (2006) this can be one of the hardest choices you will ever make, and that you should take your time to research your options so that you're able to make an educated decision about your next step, which make all the difference in the world. Understanding this you should then do a self-assessment and take stock of your career goals and how you will be able to leverage your experience in the Air Force to secure your ideal job. In conclusion I just want to state that there will be change. That is the only thing we can

Effects of the Light Wavelengths Pea Germination Essay

Effects of the Light Wavelengths Pea Germination - Essay Example The difference in light wavelength is possible by use of light filter papers that will only select required wavelength. The experiment done and that forms the basis of this paper is a reflective of the phenomenon. Five pots were used to grow the pea in different light wavelength and then the masses of the pea in the different pots taken. The plants were then placed in an oven (80 degrees centigrade) and the masses of the dry weight of the pea observed and weighed. The results of the experiment show the different activities of the light wavelength on chlorophyll element of the plant, which is responsible for the absorption of light for photosynthesis. Introduction The main aim of the experiment is to ascertain the portion of the light spectrum that is absorbed the most in the leaves by chlorophyll. Apparently, it is known that the light wavelengths are best absorbed at the red and blue region (Toole, Toole, & Toole 1999, p. 132). The light wavelengths are measured in units called Nano meters (nm). In this case, the light wavelengths are best-absorbed 670nm and 500nm in the red and blue region respectively (Mauseth, & Mauseth 2009, p.92). It is therefore hypothesized that much growth occurred in the pots with the red and blue wavelength. Plants grown in the green wavelength environment are therefore expected to poorly perform since they are poorly absorbed to facilitate the process of photosynthesis. At this point of light wavelength absorption, the chlorophyll a and b are responsible for the absorption. There are other accessory pigments that helps absorb light wavelengths that do not fall within the active wavelength. An example of these acce ssory pigments the carotenoid.... There are other accessory pigments that helps absorb light wavelengths that do not fall within the active wavelength. An example of these accessory pigments the carotenoid (Mauseth, & Mauseth 2009, p. 98). The diagram below shows the absorption of light wavelength in the spectrum by the chlorophyll. (McDonald 2003, p. 116) Methodology Since the aim of the experiment was to establish the effects of the light wave length on germination of the pea plant, several batches of the plant were taken and simultaneously grown in the different light wavelengths. These included the red light, the green light, white light and the rest grown in the dark. The white light in this case was used as the control for the experiment. After germination of the pea, a close and careful observation of the seedlings was done and the salient features noted. In the batches of the pea that were grown in the different light wavelength, Vertical heights of the five tallest seedlings were taken and the average taken. Precision was taken to ensure that the measurement reflects the accurate length of the seedlings-measurement was started at the vermiculite/soil level. The seedlings in the white pot whose average was found were then taken out of the pot. The process was done carefully to ensure that no disturbances were caused on the roots of the plant. Any vermiculite/soil that was left on the roots were also carefully removed. A labeled piece of red paper was then placed in the tare key to set the zero balance, this was particularly important in ensuring that the precise weight of the seedlings was recorded. The five seedlings from each of the pots with the peculiar wavelength were taken through the procedure and finally weighed and the units recorded-this was regarded as taking the wet

Success of Capitalism through Mass Media Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Success of Capitalism through Mass Media - Essay Example The word ‘capitalism’ appears to have its origin in long-distance trade in the past where ships went to different islands in search of pepper or spices, with the expectation that those making the movement of the goods would benefit from the scarcity of goods in one place and abundance in another place. Since the ships need to travel and there were costs to the goods and transporting same, revenues above costs or profits from the price of sold goods were expected in return (Fulcher, 2004). However, there are also risks in not being able to recover the cost due to other factors that may come into the picture (Fulcher, 2004). Â  Capitalism may have evolved in magnitude from the old times but it is essentially referring to an economic order where there is private property ownership. It could be considered as a consequence of democracy because of the nature of political and economic rights given to individuals. Along with private ownership, the market or the law of supply and demand must be allowed to operate which entails assigning a price to each of the factors of production including land, labor, capital, and entrepreneurship (Slavin, 1996). Â  The term capitalism is distinguished from communism where the means of production is owned by the state. In the capitalistic system, the market forces of supply and demand dictate what gets produced and how much it gets produced. In communism, the government as planning agency dictates what gets produced and how much it gets produced (Slavin, 1996). Capitalism is also compared to socialism as an alternative economic order. Socialism is closely related to communism since both concepts entail massive government or state intervention in terms substantial degree of government planning instead allowing market forces to function freely (Slavin, 1996).

Dq6-Sheila Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Dq6-Sheila - Essay Example The essay will discuss following thesis statement highlighting three major discussion questions that are provided. â€Å"Decision support, business intelligence and knowledge worker information system helps to enhance effective customer relationship management process in an organization that ensures business growth rate of an organization†. A decision support system can be considered as an effective computer programme application that evaluates and analyzes different types of valuable business data in order to ease the decision making process of the users (Laudon, 2011). The concept of knowledge sharing among the employees is emerging in contemporary organizational job structure due to growing competition in job market. Moreover, it is also true that each and every employee needs to utilize their knowledge and skills to evaluate and analyze any kinds of business data set. These have become prior responsibilities of employees (Galegher, 2014). It is true that, global business environment has become highly competitive. Decision support system significantly adds value after implying cost. On the other hand, knowledge workers bring efficiency in decision making process through the effective use of DSS. These require high business operation cost. But, end of the day it helps an organization to develop effective strategy. For example, Walmart has developed several strategies to enhance decision support system. The organization implemented installed and implemented numbers of decision support system including sales data warehouse and retail link in order to enhance strategy development process. This process somehow helped the organization to become market leader. In spite of huge application cost, organizations generally implements advanced technological applications in order to gain potential competitive advantages. Decision support system is such an effective system

Art and the Emergence of Darwinism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Art and the Emergence of Darwinism - Essay Example Although the ideas of Darwinism were brought up in a deeply religious environment, it came to coexist side by side with the religious community. In fact, Darwinism might have been the reason behind the increase in European missionary activities not only in Africa but in Asia, because it may have given rise to the belief that since the Europeans were superior, then their religion must also be superior (Rose 297). The idea of European supremacy took hold in Europe and it emerged in the literature that was written in that period where Europeans featured as heroes while members of other races were perceived to be the villains or inferior in both physique and intellect (Day 59). Such writings continued to have an influence on the perceptions of not only the Europeans themselves, but also on the members of the other racial groups. Therefore, it can be said that Darwin’s theory came to influence the society of the nineteenth century and has continued to do so even

Dq6-Sheila Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Dq6-Sheila - Essay Example The essay will discuss following thesis statement highlighting three major discussion questions that are provided. â€Å"Decision support, business intelligence and knowledge worker information system helps to enhance effective customer relationship management process in an organization that ensures business growth rate of an organization†. A decision support system can be considered as an effective computer programme application that evaluates and analyzes different types of valuable business data in order to ease the decision making process of the users (Laudon, 2011). The concept of knowledge sharing among the employees is emerging in contemporary organizational job structure due to growing competition in job market. Moreover, it is also true that each and every employee needs to utilize their knowledge and skills to evaluate and analyze any kinds of business data set. These have become prior responsibilities of employees (Galegher, 2014). It is true that, global business environment has become highly competitive. Decision support system significantly adds value after implying cost. On the other hand, knowledge workers bring efficiency in decision making process through the effective use of DSS. These require high business operation cost. But, end of the day it helps an organization to develop effective strategy. For example, Walmart has developed several strategies to enhance decision support system. The organization implemented installed and implemented numbers of decision support system including sales data warehouse and retail link in order to enhance strategy development process. This process somehow helped the organization to become market leader. In spite of huge application cost, organizations generally implements advanced technological applications in order to gain potential competitive advantages. Decision support system is such an effective system

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Freeway Congestion Essay The economy of a country may be determined by several factors . the growth of country’s wealth is coupled to factors such as the people population, availability of natural resources, their proper usage and general environmental management. During early time of our fore father, people enjoyed better environment due to low populations of all sort things. Peoples’ population was low and many of them lived in remote areas. Occupational space was never an issue to think of, as there was plenty of land available for any particular use. They preferred rural areas as most of them were gatherers and pastoralists. While others were substance farmers and hunters, they had the freedom to use select the site to carry out any activity of their wish anywhere. Land ownership was generally belonging to the community but not an individual as it is nowadays. The present system of individual land ownership has brought a lot of discrepancies in the distribution of people populations, infrastructure and other community amenities of paramount importance. Due to above reason different kinds of congestion has resulted leading to stresses and tensions in today’s global world. This has leads me to think of economic urban areas in term traffic congestions. (Schrank and Lomas, 2002) The interdependence between transportation and land use has long before been recognized m. Land use strongly affects transportation patterns, and the properties of the transportation network strongly affect the land use. This is well understood in a homocentric city with only commuting travel of the central business district. Most cities have become increasingly polycentric and job locations increasingly dispersed. (Anas and Small, 1980) It is also evident that noncom muting trips have become increasing important with the choice of residential location less strongly tied to workplace location. So these changes in land use are likely to continue to affect traffic volumes and patterns even more so. It is certain that the problem of traffic jams is so often to a point of describing it as a curse of the modern life. It is obvious that people must interact with one another through social life and that they have to travel long distances for purposes of business transactions. Motor vehicle transportation is one of the common methods used all over the world. Many major cities are fed and connected to each other by means of roads . so roads makes a very useful means of communication. People and cargo transport is a usual activity. Although this has proved very valuable to many developing and developed countries, it has also turned out to be one of the most embarrassing ways of travel and cargo transportation means. This is exactly due to traffic congestion in major towns and cities; which are also over burdened with all other types of congestions. Traffic congestion result out to be a miserable waste of time . Traffic congestion is the build up of traffic preventing efficient movement . it is one of the most significant problems faced in modern cities today. The products of this are other major problems such as air pollution, noise pollution, visual pollution, parking problems, destruction houses and increased risks of vehicle accidents. (Schrank and Lomas, 2002) It is not unreasonable to call up severe visions of traffic jam by the year 2050 with angry motorists hooting their horns, distressed not to be even later in picking children from school or making critical appointments in the developed countries. Many people living in developed countries continues to buy more vehicles, hence household vehicle ownership rates continue to rise evenly (Hu and Young 1994). The trend of continuous increase in incomes and falling costs of car operation, vehicle miles traveled per licensed driver continue their seemingly inexorable rise. Several transportation institutes have reported alarming increases in the traffic congestion in metropolitan areas over the last two decades (schrank and Lomas, 2002). The average number of hour that most people have suffered in a traffic jam is seven. At the same time, the travel hours to work have been increasing too, nonetheless dramatically. However, there are equal countertrends, such as rising of urban street surfaces and traffic management which includes the synchronization of traffic light, improved urban freeways and highways being added and expanded, production of new automobiles with advanced technologies not forgetting the increasing proportion of urban travel from one suburban location to another. The above trend is being offset or balances out due to increase in travel under severe congestion conditions. (Schrank and Lomas, 2002) The traffic congestion situation looks to a forgotten or a blind eye sight in most experts and this raises a weak presumption that the new improvement being under taken are leading to traffics moving more faster than twenty years ago. The fact remains that the future holds worse urban traffic congestions hence there is great need to find ways of alleviating urban traffic congestions. This can be thought in many ways as a cost that is voluntarily incurred in order to enjoy the higher incomes, amenities, increasing variety of consumer goods, enlarged scope for social interaction, and generally more stimulating and vibrant lifestyles the living in cities provides. Due to fully inefficient economy of many countries, which entails among other thing the efficient pricing and provision of transportation, traffic congestion is of paramount importance than the increase the price of any other commodity competitive in the market. Urbane economy should therefore in any way be ignored, but people should be focused out the failure to charge drivers for the external congestions they impose. Several traffic controls have been put in place for which some have worked well in some countries while other are void. Land use controls on a macro scale have been practiced in Northern Europe; this has proved very effectively in reducing the overall travel and congestion . it is noted that land use control on micro scale being practiced in the U. S where by residential are separated from non residential land uses, encourages car travel while mixing land uses at local level. (Schrank and Lomas, 2002) Another method that can be applied to the reduction of traffic congestion is the application of mass transportation mostly by focusing on cars. Many personal cars within the cities carry individual drivers with all the other seats remaining empty. this is quite uneconomical because of fuel consumption and the space utilization on the roads (Mohring, 1972). there is need to explore basic economic principles of mass transit that are likely effective in lowering transit cost function and traffic jams. This is one major factors leading congestion because people have valued comfort more than time and cost. Economists should come up with ways that consider vehicle size, comfort, acceleration of buses and subway cars, the length of subway trains and station platforms, the service frequency and density of buses and subway trains, procedures to mitigate bus grouping, expedite passenger entry and exit reducing the external marginal congestions imposed by buses on cars, and repair and maintenance rolling stock together with the design of fare collection systems. Pedestrian are nevertheless left out as they really cause and act as obstacle during road crossing. it is very important to accord the due respect to pedestrian at the zebra crossing . but such crossing areas bring inconveniencies to drivers hence causing jams. Traffic congestion will be alleviated if pedestrians and travelers’ walkways would be provided with fly over instead of zebra crossing. Thus pedestrian –car congestion should be given anew design and construction. Many developed countries suffer from traffic congestion due to restriction of shopping hours. such policies restring shopping periods should be ban to allow more shopping time and reduce congestion this may seem less conceivable as result oriented of target but many people take one shopping trip rather than having separate shopping trip. Liberalized shopping has desirable outcomes. (Schrank and Lomas, 2002) Considering that often accidents do occur, they are not only costly to the direct damage but also for the non recurrent congestion they induce. The involvement of engineers on the construction of roads is necessary to include economists. An Example of work done by Newbery (1988) gives valuable contribution of freeway and high way design ,construction, and maintenance, if sound cost- benefit analysis were practiced in all aspects of urban road engineering, substantial cost saving would be achieved . Urban transport economists make valuable contributions through analyze of sound cost benefit by state and local government. In conclusion, traffic congestion is a major concern in modern society . it affects our environment with environmental pollutions through the emission of fumes. People are put at risk from the danger of excessive vehicles which results from increased car ownership and commuting to fat residential places. Generally the solution to traffic problems is by widening the roads, creation of bypasses in the inner ring roads and outer ring roads . creation of more motorways and bus lanes to provide more space. Another way of improving the means is banning personal vehicles through imposing heavy levies on fuels and import duty. This can also be incorporated by banning cars from the central business districts and overcharging those with special cases on parking places. Reference: Abbott, J. (1990): the key role for public transport funding boost in Stockholm’s road pricing plans. Urban transport International Anas, A, and Small, K. (1998): Urban spatial structure: journal of economic literature Dupree, H. (1987): Urban transportation: New town solution. Organization for Economic co-operation and development, (1973): Effect of traffic and roads on the environment in urban areas: Paris Kanemoto, Y. (1980): theories of urban externalities. Amsterdam.